One of the highly toxic component which is used in the synthesis of fumigants whose toxic vapours are used to poison and kill pests..... CHLOROACETONITRILE!!

The chemical name for Chloroacetonitrile is ClCH₂CN, which is also known as "cyanide chloromethane." It is colorless, fuming liquid with pungent choking smell. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ether, alcohol and hydrocarbons. It sinks in water because it is denser than water. It is highly toxic. Reacts with water and steam to produce toxic vapors of hydrogen chloride. When heated to decomposition, Chloroacetonitrile emits highly toxic fumes of hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen chloride.

Manufacturing process:

It can be obtained through the dehydration of chloroacetamide under the action of phosphorus pentoxide. Chloroacetamide [C₂H₄ClNO], trimethylbenzene [C₆H₃(CH₃)₃], and phosphorus pentoxide [P₄O₁₀] are examples of chemical compounds. For one hour, the liquid was slowly refluxed while being stirred ferociously. After that, it was allowed to cool to about 100 C° while being constantly stirred. Atmospheric pressure distillation was used to separate the crude product and some of the solvent. Phosphorus pentoxide (10 g) was added to the crude chloroacetonitrile to create a pure product before being redistilled via a productive packed fractionating column.

Other process is with the reaction between excess amount of acetonitrile [CH₃CN] with chlorine [Cl₂] at 460 ℃ as well as introducing ammonia gas [NH₃] into the ether solution of dichloro acetylene [C₂Cl₂].

 

Uses:

• Chloroacetonitrile can be used as a fumigant. Pesticides known as "fumigants" can be used to poison and kill pests using their volatile vapour. Its gaseous molecules have the ability to infiltrate the bodies of dangerous creatures and cause toxic consequences. It may also be found in forms other than gas, such as liquid, solid, or compressed gaseous form. The use dose can be determined using the area to be fumigated's volume (measured in g/m 3). The applied concentration can depend on the fumigation period, the proximity of the fumigation site, the volume of material, and its ability to absorb fumigant vapour. It can be utilised in places like a warehouse, tent, house, car, etc. that are closed off or almost closed off. It can successfully get rid of any concealed bugs or pathogens when there is a high concentration of the target object to be fumigated.
• It may be employed as an analytical reagent and as a raw material for organic synthesis.
• It is also applicable as a pharmaceutical intermediary.
• The electrochemical production of cyanoacetic acid with carbon dioxide uses chloroacetonitrile.
• It participates in the Darzen's condensation process with cyclohexanone that is phase-transfer catalysed.
• It is also employed in thermo-spray liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry as an eluent additive.
• it reacts with other reactants including malononitrile, aromatic aldehyde, and pyridine to create poly-substituted pyrido[1,2-a] benzimidazole.
• It is also used in Laboratory.

One of the purest and most concentrated forms of iron available on the market! Ferric Chloride...

Ferric chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula FeCl3. Also called Iron(III) chloride.  It is a common compound of iron in the +3-oxidation state. The anhydrous form is a crystalline solid. The colour varies on the viewing angle; crystals that reflect light seem dark green, while those that transmit light appear purple-red. It is highly soluble in methanol and diethyl ether. It is not flammable. It is corrosive to aluminium and most metals when wet.

Ferric Chloride is available in majorly three different forms. Anhydrous, Hexahydrate & Aqueous solution. Hexahydrate form is appearing as Brownish-yellow solid in the form of lumps. Its aqueous solution looks brown in color.

Iron(III) chloride is hazardous, very corrosive, and acidic. The anhydrous substance has a potent dehydrating effect.

Ferric chloride consumption can cause major illness and fatality, while instances of human poisoning are uncommon. Misdiagnosis or accident ingestion might result from improper labelling and storage. With people who have been poisoned severely, early diagnosis is crucial.

 

Manufacturing process for different form is as below, 

-        Anhydrous ferric chloride can be prepared by reaction of iron and chlorine.

2Fe_(s) + 3Cl_2(g) → 2FeCl_3(s)

-        Aqueous ferric chloride can be prepared by following three methods –

By dissolving iron ore in HCl

Fe₃O_4(s) + 8HCl_(aq) → FeCl_2(aq) + 2FeCl_3(aq) + 4H₂O_(l)

By oxidation of ferrous chloride with chlorine

2FeCl_2(aq) + Cl_2(g) → 2FeCl_3(aq)

By oxidation of ferrous chloride with oxygen

4FeCl_2(aq) + O₂ + 4HCl → 4FeCl_3(aq) + 2H₂O_(l)

Anhydrous ferric chloride cannot be produced by heating hydrated iron(III) chloride. Instead, the solid breaks down into iron oxychloride and hydrochloric acid. Thionyl chloride treatment can change hydrated iron(III) chloride into the anhydrous form. Similar to other chemicals, trimethylsilyl chloride can cause dehydration.

FeCl₃·6H₂O + 12(CH₃)₃SiCl → FeCl₃ + 6((CH₃)₃Si)₂O + 12HCl

 

Uses:

-        Ferric chloride is used in various fields. It is used in sewage treatment, in production of printed circuit boards, as a catalyst in many reactions, in laboratories, for colorimetric tests for phenols, to test gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and gamma -butyrolactone, as a drying reagent in many reactions, by bladesmiths and artisans in pattern welding, to strip aluminum coating from mirrors, to etch intricate medical devices.

-        As a coagulant and flocculant, iron(III) chloride is utilised in the manufacture of drinking water and the treatment of sewage. In this use, FeCl3 interacts with the hydroxide ion (OH) in slightly basic water to generate a floc of iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3), which is also known as ferrihydrite and may be used to remove suspended debris.

-        In the creation of printed circuit boards, copper is etched using iron(III) chloride in a two-step redox reaction to copper(I) chloride and subsequently copper(II) chloride (PCB).

-        Moreover, it serves as a leaching agent in chloride hydrometallurgy, such as when producing Si from FeSi (Silgrain process by Elkem).

-        In order to produce ethylene dichloride (1,2-dichloroethane), an essential commodity chemical that is primarily utilised for the industrial manufacturing of vinyl chloride, the monomer for creating PVC, iron (III) chloride is employed as a catalyst.

-        Iron(III) chloride is a Lewis acid that is frequently used in laboratories to catalyse reactions including electrophilic aromatic substitution chlorination of aromatic compounds and of aromatics.

-        It is used in veterinary medicine to treat an animal's overgrown claws, especially when the overgrowth causes bleeding[citation needed], used in an animal model of thrombosis, A diversely used histology fixative that is a part of Carnoy's solution.

-        Ferric Chloride is used in manufacturing of Iron based products like iron sucrose, iron cyanide, etc.

-        It is also used in glass industry to make glass more shinny and increase brightness.

-        Aqueous solution of ferric chloride is used in glycerine manufacturing, refineries, oil drilling process and mining industries for separation process. It is also used consider as one of the cheapest and highly effective chemical for water treatment.

Potassium Diformate!... The first animal nutrition growth-promoting product as a nonantibiotic.

Potassium Diformate is white or light-yellow crystal or crystal powder, it is easily soluble in water and highly hygroscopic. It is stable under acidic conditions, and easy to decompose into formic acid and potassium formate under neutral or slightly alkaline conditions. Potassium diformate is odorless, low-corrosive and easy to handle.

Potassium Diformate is also called as Formic Acid, Potassium Salt (2:1); Potassium Formate (1:2); Potassium Hydrogen Diformate (KHF).

Potassium hydrogen diformate is a kind of novel microbiotic growth promoter surrogate product of developing in recent years. Feeding test-results shows, adds the Potassium hydrogen diformate of 0.6%-1.2% in swine rations, can significantly improve the gaining effect of pig, reduces because the dead quantity that infectation of bacteria causes. Calendar year 2001 is used by European Union's approval, is first kind of non-antibiotic feedstuff additive product that is used for substituting the microbiotic growth promoter of European Union's approval, has an extensive future. Maximum inclusion level of potassium diformate is 1.8% as registered by the European authorities which can improve weight gain up to 14%.

Antibiotic growth promoters have been widely used in animal feed, with considerable success. Antimicrobial feed additives are widely used to improve the performance and ecology of animal production. Ban on antibiotics as growth promoters in the European Union, and the resulting pressures on meat exporters around the world have increased interest on alternatives like herbs, herbal products, prebiotics, probiotics organic acids (formic, fumaric, citric, lactic, propionic etc.). Organic acids and their salts have received much attention as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. These vary in the growth promoting effect and mode of action. Also, physical properties such as ease of handling, odor and corrosion during feed processing and on the farm should be taken into account when evaluating the different formulations. Numerous studies have demonstrated that formic acid is effective against pathogenic bacteria and enhancing growth performance but strong odor and corrosiveness limit its use. To overcome these problems, Potassium Diformate (PD) has received attention as an alternative to formic acid because of its easiness to handle and also effective in enhancing growth performance.

The European Union (EU) has approved it as non-antibiotic growth promoter, for use in non-ruminant feeds. Non-ruminant animals are animals with a single-compartment stomach, such as swine, poultry, horses, dogs, cats, and humans. Non-ruminant nutrition looks at the diet of these animals as it relates to their digestion, growth, performance, and overall health.

The method of production Potassium hydrogen diformate provided by the present invention, with formic acid and potassium hydroxide or salt of wormwood is raw material, be at 45-80 ℃ of reaction 2-6h with the formic acid solution of 80-90% and potassium hydroxide or solution of potassium carbonate, then at the 1/2-2/3 of 65-75 ℃ of following vacuum concentration to the reactant cumulative volume, concentrated solution is cooled to 20 ℃ of following stirred crystallization 20-28h, obtains product.

Also need pass through centrifugation, drying step after the product crystallization, the centrifugation condition is generally centrifugal 5-10min under the 2000-3000rpm.

React the used potassium hydroxide or the mass percent concentration of solution of potassium carbonate and be generally 50-70%; The formic acid solution preferred concentration is 85%.When reactant was potassium hydroxide, formic acid was 1.5-2.5 with the ratio of the amount of substance of potassium hydroxide: 1, be preferably 2: 1; During for salt of wormwood, formic acid is 3.5-4.5 with the ratio of the amount of substance of salt of wormwood: 1, be preferably 4: 1.The preferred temperature of reaction is 60 ℃.

 

On this product, conclusions from the different researchers are as below,

-        We conclude from our research that our dietary potassium diformate can reduce mortality in Pacific white shrimp caused by the Gram-negative, pathogenic bacterium V. harveyi. It may be expected that similar outcomes may result with other Gram-negative bacterial pathogens in commercial shrimp farming operations. Considering our results on growth performance and survival rates, we believe that potassium diformate is a promising additive for economic and sustainable shrimp production, and should be considered in compound feeds for commercial, outdoor shrimp farming operations. - Dr. Christian Lückstädt; Orapint Jintasataporn, Kai-J. Kühlmann

-        The results indicate the promising potential of acidifiers in fish diets and provide evidence to encourage aquafeed manufacturers to consider using such additives. The dietary inclusion of Potassium Diformate (KDF) not only enhances the growth performance and the apparent protein digestibility of O. niloticus, but it also has an eubiotic effect on the proliferation of indigenous LAB, which plays a prominent role in activation of the immune response against diseases. - Nermeen M. Abu Elala, Naela M. Ragaa

-        Potassium diformate improves animal performance in terms of weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion. The improvements in performance are equal to growth promoters. Therefore potassium  diformate with  its  performance and  health  enhancing properties is an effective  alternative  to feed  antibiotics.  Effect on  the  microflora  is  regarded  as  the  main mode  of  action  and  no  risk  of  developing  resistance  in  microorganisms. It reduces the incidence of E. coli and Salmonella in meat products and therefore contributes to food safety. - Rakhi Chowdhury, Khan Md. Shaiful Islam, Mj Khan, Md Najmul Haque

-        Based on the results of the research that has been done, it can be concluded that the addition of potassium diformate in artificial feed against the growth rate of Nilem fish (Osteochilus hasselti - Valenciennes, 1842) seed at a dose of 0.1% to 0.5% tends to be effective for increasing survival. The 0.3% dose results in the highest daily growth rate and efficiency of feed utilization. - Ayi Yustiati, Amanda Shafira Chaerani, Rosidah, Iis Rostini

 

Applications are as below,

- Adjust the palatability of feed and increase intake of feed;

- Improve the internal environment of the digestive tract and lower the pH value in stomach and small intestine;

- It has the effect of an antibacterial and growth-promoting agent. The addition of potassium diformate can significantly reduce the content of anaerobic bacteria, Lactobacillus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella in each segment of the digestive tract, improve the resistance of animals to diseases, and reduce the rate of deaths due to bacterial infections;

- It can significantly increase the daily gain and feed conversion rate of pigs;

- Prevent and heal piglet diarrhea;

- Inhibit harmful components such as mold in the feed, ensure the quality of the feed, and improve the shelf life of the feed.

Potassium Diformate increases performance

Stronger acid than nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid; It is Perchloric acid (HClO4) also called Hyperchloric acid or hydroxidotrioxidochlorine

With the chemical formula HClO₄, Perchloric acid is a chlorine oxoacid. It is a mineral acid also known as hydroxidotrioxidochlorine and hyperchloric acid. This colourless chemical, which is often found as an aqueous solution, is a stronger acid than sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid. When hot, it is a potent oxidant, although at room temperature, aqueous solutions up to about 70% by weight are often harmless, exhibiting only strong acid characteristics and no oxidising properties. Perchloric acid is one of the strongest Bronsted-Lowry acids as it functions as a super acid.

At room temperature, anhydrous perchloric acid is an oozy, unstable liquid. It produces at least five hydrates, several of which have undergone crystallographic characterization. These solids are made up of the perchlorate anion connected to H₂O and H₃O⁺ centers by hydrogen bonds. Perchlorate of hydronium is one instance. With water, perchloric acid forms an azeotrope that contains roughly 72.5% perchloric acid. This acid is readily available in the marketplace and is permanently stable. These substances are hygroscopic. As a result, concentrated perchloric acid dilutes itself when exposed to the air by absorbing water from the atmosphere. It corrodes both metals and tissue. Perchloric acid in closed containers that have been exposed to heat for a long time may violently burst.

The compound poses a fire and explosion risk since it is a strong oxidant and interacts violently with combustible and reducing substances, organic substances, and strong bases. It affects numerous metals, producing explosive/flammable gas. If the concentration is greater than 72%, the acid is unstable and may explode by shock or concussion when dry or drying. At normal temperature, mixtures containing flammable material, like paper, may spontaneously ignite. Never pour water directly into perchloric acid; instead, add the acid slowly to the water to dissolve or dilute.

Given that both substances are potent oxidizers, its risks resemble those of nitric acid in many ways. A further danger from perchloric acid is that its mist and vapour it can condense and form explosive metallic perchlorates in ventilation systems.

If a substance produces protons in an aqueous solution, it is referred to as an acid, and if its conjugate base is stable, it is referred to as a strong acid. Because of the negative charge conjugation that has formed on the oxygen atom and on all three other oxygen atoms in this instance, the perchlorate ion is stable.

A strong acid is one that readily releases hydrogen, hence the term. The readiness of the hydrogen atom to separate from the molecule depends on the central atom's oxidation number when it is in a different oxidation state than in the instances given above. The most common form of sulfuric acid is H₂SO₄ and sulphur has an oxidation number of +6. HClO₄ has a chlorine oxidation number of +7 while HClO₃ has a chlorine oxidation number of +5. As a result, perchloric acid's HClO₄ bond is the weakest, making it our choice for the strongest acid. Additionally, it is more potent than the most common nitric acid. Perchloric acid has a Cl oxidation state of +7 while sulphuric acid has a S oxidation state of +6. The O-H bond breaks more rapidly the more oxidised the core atom, making the acid stronger.

In contrast to other noncoordinating anion acids like hexafluorophosphoric acid and fluoroboric acid, which exhibit substantial susceptibility to hydrolysis, perchloric acid is weakly nucleophilic in nature and has little susceptibility to hydrolysis.

Caution:

Keep in mind that although being highly caustic by nature, perchloric acid is useful in rocketry due to the mixes it may create. We can also remark that since there are three oxygen atoms, they will pull oxygen hydrogen's electrons toward them, weakening the bond.

Process:

There are two methods for producing perchloric acid industrially. The high aqueous solubility of sodium perchlorate (209 g/100 mL of water at room temperature) is taken advantage of by the conventional approach. When such solutions are treated with hydrochloric acid, perchloric acid results, which precipitates solid sodium chloride

 NaClO₄ + HCl → NaCl + HClO₄

By distilling, the concentrated acid can be made pure. Anodic oxidation of aqueous chlorine at a platinum electrode is the more direct and salt-free alternative approach.

Acetic anhydride, which interacts with the water in perchloric acid to produce an anhydrous combination, is used to remove water from perchloric acid.

 

Uses:

• Ammonium perchlorate, a crucial component of rocket fuel, can be prepared with the help of perchloric acid, which is also useful for other perchlorate salts. Perchloric acid is very corrosive and easily creates mixes that could explode. As a result, perchloric acid is regarded as a crucial chemical in the space industry.
• In the process of separating sodium and potassium, perchloric acid is utilised as an oxidizer.
• Additionally, this substance is employed in the etching of liquid crystal display devices (often abbreviated to LCD). As a result, perchloric acid is also frequently utilised in the electronics sector.
• To separate potassium from sodium, as well as in other scientific experiments and commercial procedures, perchloric acid is utilised. As a result of its special characteristics, this substance is used in analytical chemistry.
• Used as a catalyst for the electropolishing or etching of molybdenum and chrome, as a reagent to determine the 1H-Benzotriazole, for plating metals, and in the manufacture of explosives.
• It is employed in the production of optical equipment, chemical products, fertiliser, and rust removal.
• In addition, perchloric acid is used in the extraction of materials from their ores in a number of significant ways.
• The perchloric acid salts are used in explosives and metal plating, among other things. Perchloric acid has the potential to detonate and releases toxic and corrosive vapours when heated.

Researchers should bear the following in mind while using or anticipating utilising perchloric acid in their experiments:

• Currently, there are no fume hoods on campus that can accommodate perchloric acid digestions in a secure manner. Due to the significant cost of cleaning these wash-down hoods of perchlorate pollution, any surviving hoods have been decommissioned and won't be turned back on.
• At no point should solvents be kept close to a designated perchloric acid location. These locations need to be marked with a sign that reads "Use Only Perchloric Acid. Organic Chemicals Are Not Allowed."
• Always add acid to water, not the other way around, using diluted perchloric acid (or any other acid).
• Researchers' tissues are just as susceptible to perchloric acid damage as sample tissue is. When handling perchloric acid, safety equipment such as goggles or face shields, gloves, and an apron are required.
• Until a perchloric acid digesting hood has been completely decontaminated, no work should be done in it due to the risk of an explosion.
• No garbage containing perchloric acid should be combined with any other waste. It should be placed in acid-resistant bottles (ideally the acid's original container), identified as hazardous chemical waste, and handled accordingly.
• Perchloric acid needs to be stored inside secondary containment, apart from all other compounds (such as a pyrex baking dish or plastic dish pan). It must not be kept next to bases, other organic or combustible materials, or organic acids like acetic acid.

Extremely poisonous and corrosive acid among all acids, NITRIC ACID!!

A member of the class of inorganic acids, nitric acid is a conjugate acid of nitrate. As indicated by the symbol HNO3, the nitrogen atom is joined to two oxygen atoms and a hydroxyl group. It is a good conductor of electricity, has a molecular weight of 63.013 g/mol, and is very soluble in water. Following distillation, pure nitric acid starts to boil at 78.2°C and solidifies after being thoroughly cooled.

When nitric acid is fresh, it is colourless; but, as it ages, the buildup of nitrogen oxides causes it to turn yellow. Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It easily ionises in solution and becomes a good electrical conductor. It forms nitrate salts when it interacts with metals, oxides, and hydroxides.

Pure anhydrous nitric acid (100%) solidifies at -42° C and takes the shape of white crystals. It is a colourless, mobile liquid with a density of 1.512 g/cm2. At 83⁰ C, it starts to boil. In order to prevent decomposition, anhydrous nitric acid should be stored below 0°C.

Commercial grade, which is of medium quality, often contains water and nitric acid solutions that range in concentration from 52% to 68% nitric acid. Laboratories require a higher quality, and their concentrations of nitric acid are often between 70% and 99%. A solution is referred to as fuming nitric acid when it contains more than 86% nitric acid. Fumigating nitric acid can also be classified as red fuming nitric acid at concentrations over 86% or white fuming nitric acid at concentrations above 95%, depending on the amount of nitrogen dioxide present.

Caution: Nitric acid may damage a metal pump if you use it. To handle considerably larger nitric acid concentrations, use a plastic pump, which is what you should use.

Nitric acid is exceedingly poisonous and corrosive. Nitric acid fumes have a sour, suffocating smell and are extremely hazardous. To tissues, metals, and even some polymers, the liquid form is corrosive. Direct contact can therefore cause serious burns. Use caution and use the appropriate PPE when handling nitric acid.

The Ostwald process, which was name after the name of German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald, is primarily used produce Nitric Acid by oxidise ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia is converted to nitric oxide during this process, which takes place at a high temperature of around 500K and a pressure of 9 bar in the presence of a platinum or rhodium gauge catalyst. Sulfuric acid is used to process sodium nitrate to yield minute quantities. One of the ingredient in acid rain is nitric acid.

Step 1: Formation of Nitric Oxide

4NH₃ + 5O₂ ↔ 4NO + 6H₂O | H -24.8 Kcal/mol (Catalyst: platinum gauze or copper and nickel)

Step 2: Formation of Nitrogen Dioxide

2NO + O₂ ↔2 NO₂

Step 3: Formation of Nitric Acid

3NO₂ + H₂O -> 2HNO₃ + NO

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reacts with water to create nitric acid. The nitric oxide that results from the process is often re-oxidized by the oxygen in the air to yield more nitrogen dioxide. It is possible to create practically pure nitric acid by mixing sulfuric acid with a nitrate salt and heating the combination in an oil bath. The vapours of nitric acid that escape from the solution are condensed using a condenser.

Strong nitric acid is created industrially by dissolving extra nitrogen dioxide in 68% nitric acid in an absorption tower. When nitrogen oxides are dissolved, they either get taken away to create white fuming nitric acid or they stay in solution to create red fuming nitric acid. The production of anhydrous acid from concentrated nitric acid feedstock has recently been made possible using electrochemical methods.

Nitric acid is mostly used to make fertilisers like ammonium nitrate and explosives like nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene (TNT). Additionally, it is employed in metallurgy, ore flotation, steel etching, photoengraving, and the recycling of spent nuclear fuel in the production of chemicals, such as dyes. Another frequently employed strong oxidising agent is nitric acid.

Many different processes and businesses use nitric acid extensively. The key applications in the various industries are listed below,

1. Fertilizers

Making fertiliser is nitric acid's main industrial application. Nitric acid, as ammonium nitrate, is a fantastic fertiliser when coupled with ammonia. Calcium nitrate is another synthetic fertiliser. All around the nation, farms employ these fertilisers.

2. Explosives

Numerous forms of explosives, including nitroglycerin and trinitroglycerin, are produced using nitric acid (TNT). These are utilised for national defence and are of military grade.

3. Dye Intermediate

Numerous industrial dyes can be processed using nitric acid when it is transformed into calcium ammonium nitrate.

4. Laboratory Use

A crucial component for laboratory work is nitric acid. It functions as a pH buffer, a cleaning agent, and a preservative for water samples that need to be cleaned up for metal analysis.

5. Drug Detection

In a colorimetric test, nitric acid can be used to distinguish between heroin and morphine. Additionally crucial is the ability to identify LSD in spot tests.

6. Adhesive

A frequent ingredient in the adhesive used in food packaging and paperboard is nitric acid.

7. Medicinal

Nitric acid can be used to treat boils and warts since it is caustic in its pure form. It can be used to cure indigestion if it is diluted.

8. Purifying Metals    

Platinum, gold, and silver are examples of noble metals that can be cleaned and purified using nitric acid. When coupled with hydrochloric acid, it creates aqua regia, a substance that may even dissolve platinum and gold. Jewelers typically purify noble metals.

9. Furniture Coating

The main ingredient in furniture varnish is nitric acid. It is therefore frequently utilised as a lacquer when coloured pigment is added to it. Even pine and maple wood can appear artificially aged thanks to it.

10. Engraving

Nitric acid and alcohol can be used to etch patterns into a variety of metals, including copper, bronze, and brass. Typically, these are utilised in house decor.

Since nitric is used in so many industries, identifying the top 10 uses for it would only scrape the surface. Additionally, it serves as a component of liquid rocket fuel, a crucial ingredient in the production of polymers, and a cleaning agent in facilities that handle food.

Packaging is a crucial element for the safe handling of chemicals in the chemical industry.

One of the oldest techniques for preserving and moving goods from one location to another is packaging. It also plays a significant role for product protection and product identification.

Packaging is a crucial element for the safe handling of chemicals in the chemical industry. Every type of Packaging is created specifically for the type of chemical being moved or stored. Chemicals should be packaged properly to prevent mishaps and genuine threat to people's safety and material protection, including material and infrastructure damages as well as loss of life in the event of fire explosions.

To guarantee that chemicals are kept appropriately, prevent deterioration, and may be disposed of securely, it is essential to adhere to the relevant laws and standards for chemical packaging.

Packaging for chemicals are often divided into two groups:

1) UN Approved Packaging

2) Non-UN Approved Packaging

UN Approved Packaging

Packaging that has received UN approval has been confirmed to meet and adhere to UN standards. This is especially important if you deal with the trading and transportation of hazardous materials. Chemical packaging in these circumstances must go through actual transit testing, including being dropped or put under a lot of pressure.

UN-approved chemical packaging must also have the proper identifying labels and be able to keep the substance within properly. For instance, glass packing should be used to carry hazardous products like acid since it is inert and non-porous.

UN packaging can be split into three further categories:

1) UN X - suitable for Packing Group 1 and lower

2) UN Y - suitable for Packing Group 2 and lower

3) UN Z - suitable for Packing Group 3 only

Hazardous compounds are categorized into three Packing Groups in accordance with UN standards:

1) Packing Group 1 for high-danger materials

2)  Packing Group 2 for materials posing medium danger

3) Packing Group 3 for low-danger materials

Packaging Groups 2 and 3 can also utilize UN X packaging since it has been tested to the greatest level of hazard but UN Y or UN Z packaging is not permitted to use for packing group 1 substance.

Non-UN Approved Packaging

Non-UN certified packaging may be used to store and transport non-hazardous materials with no issues. This is because if the packaging is damaged, such as by spilling, there is no danger to the health and safety of people or the environment.

Buffer Solutions are an example of a non-hazardous material that doesn't need packaging that has been authorized by the UN.

 

The relevant hazard messages, including as labels and shipping documents, must be included in the packaging of hazardous goods, and this responsibility falls on the manufacturers and distributors of such materials.

Here are some actions one ought to take:

1) Use the products SDS to get the correct transportation hazard classification for the product, as well as its:

2) Four-digit product number

3) Proper shipping name

4) Hazard class

5) Packing group

Once you have determined quantities and selected your packaging, you must mark and label your product appropriately with:

1) Hazard class labels

2) UN Number

3) Batch Number

4) Weight details

5) Proper shipping name

6) Shippers’ information

7) Manufacturing and expiry dates

8) Hazard Statements

9) Precautionary Statements

10) UN marking number for packaging

 

Packaging Alternatives

According to a chemical's physical characteristics, there are several packaging alternatives for hazardous and non-hazardous substances. The table below lists a few alternatives for packing bulk chemicals.

Bags are often preferred for packing chemicals that have a powder, granular, or crystallised physical quality. Different materials, such as HDPE, LDPE, PP, paper, etc., are used to make bags. Some pharmaceutical drugs are kept in fibre drums. Additionally, there are occasions when materials are moved or kept in corrugated boxes with inside LDPE packing. Size of bags are different as per the end use and material properties which is starting from 1 mg pouch to 1 Kg to 10 Kg to 50 Kg to 1250Kg.

Open top barrels with lid and locking mechanism built from GI, HDPE, or composite materials can be used to pack materials with slurry-like characteristics.

Liquid chemicals are having many options for packaging. Packaging should be chosen base on many different criteria like chemical characteristics of material, operational convenience, end use, use preference, etc. For small quantity, majorly glass bottle or Plastic bottle is preferred. For bulk packaging, Carboys, Barrels, IBC, Flexi Bag and ISO tank are the options.

Gases which need to transport can be move is different size of cylinders or ISO tank.

 1. SS Barrel

2. GI Barrel (Small Mouth & Open Top)

3. Fibber Drum

4. MS Barrel

5. Jumbo Bag (500 Kg/700 Kg/1000 Kg/1200 Kg/1250 Kg)

6. Flexi Tank

7. Carboys and Jerry Cans

8. HDPE Barrel

9. IBC

10. Corrugated Boxes

11. Gas Cylinders

12. ISO Tank

13. HDPE Open Top Barrels

14. PP Bag

15. Paper Bag and HDPE Bag

16. Brick type paper bag

IMDG Code

International movement of chemical via ocean should follow IMDG guidelines. IMDG means International Maritime Dangerous Goods.

Dangerous goods are assigned to one of the classes 1–9 according

to the hazard they present. Some of these classes are subdivided

Class 1: Explosives ( 1.1 to 1.6 )

Class 2: Gases

Class 2.1: flammable gases

Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases

Class 2.3: toxic gases

Class 3: Flammable liquids

Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous

combustion; substances which, in contact with water, emit

flammable gases

Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances, solid desensitized explosives and

polymerizing substances

Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion

Class 4.3: substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases

Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides

Class 5.1: oxidizing substances

Class 5.2: organic peroxides

Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances

Class 6.1: toxic substances

Class 6.2: infectious substances

Class 7: Radioactive material

Class 8: Corrosive substances

Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles

Some of the dangerous goods are marine pollutants

Below are a few criteria for dangerous goods shipping.

 1) The UN number and the letters “UN” shall be at least 12 mm high

- Packages of 30 litres or30 kg or less = 6 mm

- Cylinders of 60 litres water capacity = 6 mm

2) Overpack

An overpack and unit load shall repeated the marks and labels if same are not visible on packages.

In addition, an over pack shall be marked with the word “OVERPACK” unless marks and labels are visible. Overpacks must be additionally marked with “OVERPACK”. The lettering of the “OVERPACK” marking shall be at least 12 mm high.

3) IBC: Intermediate bulk containers of more than 450 L capacity and large packaging shall be marked on two opposing sides.

4) Marine Pollutant: Packages containing marine pollutants must be marked with Marine Pollutant Mark. There are exemptions for smaller packages of 5kg or 5l and less. Dangerous Goods list column 4 and alphabetical list indicate marine pollutants with symbol “P”.

5) Limited and Excepted Quantities: Dangerous goods in limited and excepted quantities have different marking requirements in chapters 3.4 and 3.5. They must be consigned according to column 7a and 7b of dangerous goods list in chapter 3.2.

6) Orientation arrows:

• Combination packagings having inner packagings containing liquid dangerous goods;

• Single packaging fitted with vents; and

• Cryogenic receptacles for refrigerated liquefied gases

• shall be legibly marked with package orientation arrows

 

7) Label Specification:

• Square set at an angle of 45° (diamond-shaped)

• 100 mm by 100 mm

• A line 5 mm inside the edge and running parallel with it

• Upper half of a label the line shall have the same colour as the symbol and in the

• Lower half it shall have the same colour as the figure in the bottom corner

• Labels shall be displayed on a background of contrasting colour, or shall have either a dotted or solid outer boundary line

8)Durability of Marks labels: Durability shall be such that marks and labels are still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three months’ immersion in the sea.

9) Marking and Placarding of CTU:

Cargo transport unit (CTU) means a road transport tank or freight vehicle, a railway transport tank or freight wagon, a multimodal freight container or portable tank, or an multiple-element gas container (MEGC).

Freight container must display

1. Class placard

2. Subsidiary Hazard Placard

3. Marine Pollutant Mark

 

Cargo mass & UN Number display

1. Single cargo with less than 4000 kg mass no UN number to be displayed

2. Single cargo with more than 4000 kg mass UN Number must be displayed

Single hazardous substance – less than 4000 kgs : 4 x Diamond placards

Single hazardous substance – more than 4000 kgs : 4 x Diamond placards & 4 x UN Numbers

10) UN Number Display:

UN Number may be displayed with then placard or in an orange panel.

Against a white background in the area below the pictorial symbol and above the class number

On an orange rectangular panel not less than 120 mm high and 300 mm wide, with a 10 mm black border, to be placed immediately adjacent to each placard

In black digits not less than 65 mm high

11) Marking and Placarding of Tank:

A tank container carrying dangerous goods or residue of

previously carried dangerous goods must be marked and

placarded as below.

• UN Number on all four sides

• Proper Shipping Name on two sides

• Class and subsidiary hazards(s) placards on all four sides

• If Marine Pollutant, marine pollutant mark on all four sides

Marking of Proper Shipping Name: The proper shipping displayed in characters not more than 65 mm high. Contrasting colour with the background. This may be reduced to 12 mm for portable tank containers with a capacity of less than 3,000 L.

12) Fumigated Cargo Transport Unit:

Fumigated containers must display below mark on the door of the unit. Must be removed only after unloading the unit

13) Expendable Refringent: Cargo transport units with expendable refrigerants (dry ice, liquid nitrogen etc) must display below warning sign.

Reference: 

- IMDG Code : IMDG Code 39th Amendment published in 2018 is mandatory from 1st Jan 2020 till 31st Dec 2021. The Code Contains volume 1, 2 and supplement

- IMDG Code Consignment Procedure

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